There are two different types of natural dyes: substantive and adjective. A substantive dye is one that will colour the fibre without the use of a mordant e.g. indigo. The use of a mordant with a substantive dye extends their colour potential and increases their fastness.

An adjective dye requires the use of mordants to intensify colour and to make them permanent. The majority of natural dyes are adjective. It should be noted that all natural dyes can be used in the absence of mordants although wash, light and rub fastness are very low and colour potential is limited.

Dye extracts are always stronger than dye liquors or raw materials. This is because the dye has already been extracted from the raw material. If using extracts adjust the amount used.

WHY USE NATURAL DYES?

There are many reasons why people are turning to natural dyes even though synthetic dyes are more convenient to purchase and dye with. Each plant provides an amazing diversity of shades. From one plant you may obtain between 5-15 varying colours and shades. These colours and shades are subtle and tend to harmonize with one another. The resulting fabrics or fibres are now original pieces - it is extremely difficult for anyone to duplicate exactly (even the dyer).

Also there is the question of ecology. As people become more aware of environmental factors dyers are searching for alternatives. Natural dyes are seen as more eco-friendly as, unlike their synthetic counterparts, they are all derived from nature. The dye baths can be neutralized effectively through the addition of either acid or alkaline and then poured down the sink, or on to the garden. Use litmus paper to test the "pH", available at most chemists.

WHAT ARE MORDANTS?

Mordants are metallic or mineral salts which, when added to the natural dye bath either enhance, intensify, or change the colour. They also play a large role in making the resulting shade faster to light and washing.
All mordants should be treated with care and common sense, but without panic. They need to be kept dry, away from sunlight, children, pets and food. Always wash hands before eating, drinking, smoking or using bathroom. Never use equipment that has been used in dyeing for cooking or food preparation. As a precaution it is a good idea to always add chemicals to water, not the other way around to avoid the solution spitting.
Generally all fibres are pre-mordanted with alum. This does not affect the colour of the dyestuff; it helps to increase wash and light fastness. Other mordants will alter the colour of the natural dye bath. Some dyers like to add mordants a pinch at a time until they see a colour change. Remember though that too much can damage your fibre.

 · Never put fibre in dye bath before mordants are added and dissolved. This protects fibres from exposure to high concentrations chemicals (which as noted before can deteriorate fibres).

 * Never put dry fibre in dye bath (to avoid uneven and streaky dyeing).
* It is a good idea to keep records of your own experiments in case you want to duplicate results.

All mordants can be made into solutions and stored. Dissolve in hot water, allow to cool, bottle and carefully label. Include the concentration, the date dissolved, and the use.
Dyers rarely agree on the quantities of mordant to be used. There are general guides though the best way for any dyer to find amount of mordant to be used is to conduct their own experiments.

PRE-MORDANTING

This is done before dyeing. It results in even dyeing and fibres are quite fast to light and washing. Pre-mordanting of all yarns with Alum is quite common. Copper Sulphate can also be used. Fibres can also be successfully stored wet or dry after mordanting. If wet, fibre can be kept for a period of about 6 weeks providing it is well ventilated to prevent mold. If storing dry, fibre can be stored indefinitely.

Procedure

Soak wool for several hours to ensure complete saturation.
Fill enamel or stainless steel pot with enough water to cover your fibre.
Add dissolved mordant to dye pot.
Gently heat to room temperature and add wet fibre.
Slowly bring to a simmer and hold it there for an hour. DO NOT BOIL.
Stir occasionally, very gently and slowly.
Remove pot from heat and allow to cool overnight.
Remove fibre. It is now ready to be dyed or stored (wet or dry) for later use.

MORDANTS AS ADDITIVES

This is a process where you will be mordanting and dyeing at the same time, in the same dyebath. The benefit of this method is that the fibre is only processed once. This is ideal for fibres such as silk that deteriorate quickly in presence of strong chemicals. It is also good as it takes less time. One dye will yield several different shades or colours using this method. Keep careful records if ever you want to duplicate results.

 Procedure

Prepare dyebath with selected dyestuff.
Divide into several pots.
Add mordants to dyepots a pinch at a time until you can see a visible colour change. (Amount will vary considerably for each mordant)
Add wet fibre to each.
Slowly raise the heat to simmering point and hold for an hour as above.
Allow to cool. Wash in small amount of pure soap.
Hang to dry in shade.

USING A POT AS MORDANT

Aluminum, Iron, Copper, Tin and Brass pots will affect the colour of your dyebath. Instead of adding mordants, your pot simply replaces this need. This is a type of simultaneous dyeing. The dyeing procedure is the same, except you exclude mordants. Mordants can be added to pots, to give interesting results. This is generally only suitable for the dyer who does not want to control their colours.

SADDENING AND BLOOMING

Saddening and blooming is mordanting after the fibre has accepted the dye. This method is most widely used by experienced dyers who want to control the exact shade of their fibre. Generally ferrous sulphate is used to sadden colours and tin is used for brightening. One benefit of this method is that fibres are not exposed to chemicals for long periods of time, therefore not affecting the quality of the fibres.

Procedure

Prepare the dyebath and add wet fibre.
Slowly raise temperature and allow simmering for 1 hour. DO NOT BOIL.
Remove the fibre (Removing wool when dyebath is still very hot can shrink it. Either allow dyebath to cool or plunge wool into similar temperature water)
Add dissolved mordant. Turn heat off.
Put fibre back into dyebath and leave for 5-15 minutes.
Remove fibre, rinse and wash in pure soap e.g. Lux or dishwashing detergent.
A final rinse in 5L of water and 1 tablespoon of vinegar is a good idea to neutralize ferrous sulphate and tin without affecting colour.

FIBRES SUITABLE FOR DYEING

Wool is the easiest fibre to dye with natural dyes. Clean fleece or yarn is most easily dyed. Wool is most widely used for several reasons; it is relatively inexpensive, always available, diverse in use, easy to handle and takes the dye well. Resulting colours are fast to light and washing when used in conjunction with appropriate mordant.

Silk can also be dyed although the dyer must be very careful with the use of strong alkalis as these can 'eat' your silk. It is also important to note that silk cannot be dyed at high temperatures for long periods of time as this degrades the quality of the silk. Silk does take well to strong natural dyes e.g. cochineal, and when pre-mordanted, colours become much deeper.

Cotton and linen do not have the same affinity for natural dyes. They do not seem to 'take up' the dye as well. This could be because they are cellulose fibres unlike protein fibres of wool and silk. However they do take the stronger natural dyes well. For first attempts, dyeing of these fibres is not recommended. Results are harder to achieve, often resulting in uneven dyeing. Wash and colourfastness tends not to be as good either.

There are no rules for the dyeing of synthetic fibres. Most acrylics will take a natural dye, sometimes even brighter than its woollen counterpart. Nylons will dye though results will be paler. Processing at high temperatures cannot harm most synthetics, therefore repeated dyeing for stronger colours is not of concern. Like all things it is best to conduct tests. You will find some do not like the strong mordants e.g. ferrous sulphate / tin.

All fibres must be free of commercial sizing, oil or dirt. It is a good idea to wash all fibres in soap e.g. Lux or Synthrapol before dyeing.

Yarn is best dyed in a skein, tied in several places to avoid knots. It is also possible to dye woollen garments, or lengths of fabric, but is generally avoided, as it is almost impossible to achieve even dyeing.

 DYEING PROCEDURE

Unless more information is given under individual dye description this is the general procedure.

Dyes in raw form should be crushed or ground so extraction of colour is easier. Some will already be in extract form. These are more concentrated than the extracts you will make yourself so adjust quantities accordingly.
After crushing raw materials place them in a container with enough water to cover dyestuff.
Leave overnight so dyestuff is completely soaked.
Slowly heat the dye to boiling point (NB: MADDER - should not be boiled).
Boil for 30-60 minutes depending on how fast colour is being extracted. Cool for long enough that pot can be handled.
Strain through piece of cloth (e.g. muslin) making sure no particles re-enter dyebath.
Dyebath should be at room temperature. Add wetted fibre into dyebath. If for example you try to add wool when dyebath is very hot the wool will shrink, so be patient.
Raise temperature slowly, until reaches simmering point.
Leave to simmer until desired shade is obtained. There is no rule here, but 45 minutes is a guideline.
If simultaneously mordanting add selected mordant after 30 minutes of dyeing.
Remember never add mordant to dyebath while fabric is in the pot, remove fabric from pot, add dissolved mordant and re-enter fibre. Remember that removing andentering wool from hot water can shrink or felt fibre.
Allow fabric to cool in dyebath.
Rinse in cool running water. Rinse in soapy water. This removes excess dye, preventing bleeding in future washes.

 Litmus paper, available at chemists, is used to test the acidity or alkalinity of the dyebath. This is an important part of the dyeing process. Too much of either will damage the cloth and restrict the absorption of the dye into the fibre. This benefits the serious dyer because they can control what colours are going to be produced. Secondly, the dyebath can be neutralized and disposed of with no negative environmental side affects. This is a worthwhile and easy test that can be performed quickly and efficiently.

 PH balance
Acid bath Neutral bath Alkaline bath
pH 1-6 pH 7 pH 8-14
litmus turns red no change litmus turns blue e.g. vinegar, e.g. ammonia, cream of tartar soda ash

DYES

POMEGRANATE (Punica granatum)

Pomegranate is a fruit that contains 25% natural tannin. In dyeing the rind of the fruit is most widely used.
Adjective dye - Will dye: cotton, wool, silk and nylon.

Polygenic*.
Produces yellowish \ brown shades.

Pre-mordant with alum for better pick-up. Colour generated- Brownish yellow
Post mordant with ferrous sulphate to produce shades from khaki to grey.

MYROBALAN (Terninalia chebula)

Myrobalan can be used as both a dye and as a mordant as it contains 90% natural tannin. It is an extract of a plant.

Adjective dye.
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk and nylon.
Polygenic*.

Produces shades from yellow to black.

Pre-mordant with alum for better pick-up. This produces light brown to fawn.
Post mordant with ferrous sulphate will produce darker shades.

KAMALA (Mellotus phillipensis)

Kamala is a plant extract.

Adjective dye.
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk nylon and polyester.
Polygenic*.
Produces shades from bright yellow to orange.
Needs to be dissolved in alkaline medium e.g. alum, as it is insoluble in water.

ALKANET ROOT (Alkana tinctoria)

Alkanet needs to be crushed and boiled to extract any colour.
Adjective dye.
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk nylon and polyester.
Polygenic*.

 No mordant - grey / blue
Pre-mordant with Alum - purple
Post - mordant with Copper Sulphate - brown / purple
Post - mordant with Ferrous Sulphate - purple / black
Post - mordant with Tin - deep mauve

 * Each different mordant used will produce varying colours and hues from the one dyebath.

COCHINEAL (Coccus lacca)

Cochineal is a substance that comes from bodies of insects, Dactylopius coccus, found on prickly pear cacti.
Needs to be crushed and boiled to extract colour.
Substantive dye.
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk, nylon and polyester.
Polygenic*.
Produces reds, pinks and purples.

No mordant - pinks / magentas
Ferrous sulphate - reds / oranges -- grey / purple / black
Copper sulphate - dusty purple
Ammonia after bath - purple
Tin - post mordant to brighten colour

CUTCH (Accacia catechu)

Extract from wood of tree. Contains 40-50%natural tannin, therefore can also be used as a mordant
Adjective dye
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk, nylon and polyester.
Polygenic*

Produces rusty red and brown shades

 No mordant - rusty tan
Alum - rusty brown
Copper sulphate - brown
Ferrous sulphate - grey / brown
Tin - rusty gold

MADDER (Rubia cardiofolia)

Extract from root of tree.
Adjective dye.
Will dye: cotton, wool, silk, nylon and polyester.
Polygenic*.
Produces colours ranging from orange to black.
Need hard water (add a little powdered chalk).
It is essential in this dyeing procedure to keep dyebath below boiling point. If dyebath reaches boiling the root, yellow in colour, is released which creates dull yellow browns.

Pre-mordanted with alum - deep orange
Pre-mordanted with tin and cream of tartar - orange
Pre-mordanted with alum / cream of tartar, addition of tin - scarlet
Ferrous sulphate will produce near black, or dark brown
Copper sulphate - dark tan

* Each different mordant used will produce varying colours and hues from the one dyebath.

INDIGO (Indigofera tinctoria)

Indigo is extracted from a plant.
Substantive dye.
Cake indigo must be pulverized before you can dye with it.

 Indigo is insoluble in water and by itself cannot be used successfully. Due to the high alkalinity of the indigo dye pot, wool and silk must be handled with extreme care. Both should be dyed in a low alkaline bath and neutralized soon after oxidation.

The only way fabric can be dyed with indigo is through chemical reactions in the dye pot. There are two methods to dye fabric with indigo -

 1. Reduction Vat

Ingredients:
Thiourea Dioxide Water
Cooking Salt Caustic Soda (Lye)

Procedure:

This recipe is for a 12liter vat. Increase or decrease recipe to suit personal needs. Plastic buckets or garbage bins are best to use.

Sprinkle 2 tablespoons thiourea dioxide (T.U.D.) onto surface of 9.5 liters of water. Mix gently.
Dissolve the following in 2.25 liters of water:
Add each ingredient separately, stirring gently after each addition
3 cups of salt
1 1/2 cups T.U.D.
1 cup caustic soda (lye) that has been dissolved in 2 cups water
Then add 2 - 4 cups indigo to the chemicals a spoonful at a time, stirring after each addition.

The indigo will take a while to dissolve in the chemical solution. When dissolved it will look yellowish-brown beneath the surface. The surface will look a dark blue with lots of coppery foam

Cover and leave for 10 minutes.

Lower the indigo solution into a garbage bin and let solution gently flow out. DO NOT POUR. Pouring will allow air to get into the vat, which can kill it. Stir gently. Leave for 1/2 hour. It is now ready to be used. If you are not ready to use, cover the dyebath to keep out oxygen. This can be done using a plastic bag or similar and fasten with pegs or string. The dyebath will store up to two weeks this way providing no air enters. The plastic must be resting on the indigo solution to avoid any interaction with the air.

Before immersing anything into dyebath, skim aside the foam.
Immerse wet fabric into dyebath slowly and gently, so as not to let air into dyebath.
Leave for approximately 5 minutes.
Pull out piece from bath, making sure no drips fall back into it.
The piece should be yellowish green in colour. After it has oxidized it will turn blue.
For deeper colours re-dipping is an option. Keeping piece in dyebath for long periods of time will not increase the intensity of the colour. This can only be achieved through multiple dips.

Oxidation generally takes between 30-60 minutes. You will now be able to see if the piece is the shade of blue you want. A piece can be dipped as many as 6-7 times to obtain dark denim blue.

2. Fermentation Vats

This modification is of an ancient method adapted to suit modern circumstances. Yeast, sugar and household ammonia are substituted for urine.

The yeast, in the presence of sugar takes oxygen from the water, which leaves free hydrogen molecules. The hydrogen combines with the indigo to modify it into alkali-soluble indigo white. The ammonia then dissolves the indigo white to make it suitable for dyeing.

 Procedure:

1 teaspoon indigo (if in cake form must be ground into powder)
1-tablespoon yeast (moist or dry)
1-3 tablespoons sugar
1/2 cup clear household ammonia
4.5liters warm water (28 - 40 C) if the water is too hot it will kill the yeast

Dissolve sugar in 4.5 liters of warm water, and check the temperature is not too hot, as it might kill the yeast.
Add yeast. Let stand until the yeast becomes active.
In small container add ½ cup of ammonia to 1 teaspoon of indigo. Stir well to wet indigo thoroughly.
Add ammonia-indigo mixture to 4.5 liters of sugar-yeast mixture.
Allow to stand until bath turns yellow (this may take up to 24 hours or longer as determined by activity of yeast and the quantity of Indigo in the raw material.).
When ready it should be milky yellow with cloudy sediment of yeast at the bottom, and a frothy blue surface.
It may be necessary to add small amounts of sugar from time to time to feed the yeast and encourage active growth. There seems to be some antiseptic properties in some indigo, which inhibit yeast growth.
Follow same dipping procedure as outlined in the reduction vat instructions.

TUMERIC
Adjective dye - Will dye: cotton, wool, silk

Materials;

one ounce ground tumeric
a gallon of water
one gallon plus dyeing pot

Directions:
#1 Boil the water and tumeric to extract dye and let it sit over night. It will be a greenish/yellow color with bits of dye plant floating about it. You can re-heat and add the skeins directly to the mixture. This will produce the best color. It produces a very rich orangey/gold on wool.

#2 Let the dye sit over night and strain it through a cloth-lined sieve to catch the dye stuff... Its a very powerful dye - add several skeins of wool .Gives a rich deep gold color. Skeins dyed in the afterbath are increasingly lighter gold with touches of green.

 ALUM - (Aluminium Potassium Sulphate)

85 gram Alum
30-gram cream of tartar
450-gram wool
18-20 liters of water

 - Most commonly used pre-mordant (generally all wool is pre-mordanted with Alum)
- Does not effect colour, though it brightens most light colours
- The use of too much will leave the fibre feeling "sticky" and harsh
- The use of cream of tartar with Alum is recommended as it softens the effects of alum and helps with evenness
- Alum mordanted wool can be stored
- Require approximately 120gms for 1kg of wool and silk

 FERROUS SULPHATE - (Iron sulphate / Copperas)

15-gram iron crystals
30-gram cream of tartar
450-gram wool
18-20 liters of water)

- Will sadden or darken colours
- Too much will harden fibre and cause colours to streak
- Generally fibre is dyed before mordanting
- Is a good idea to always use separate pot for ferrous sulphate, as even a small amount of residue will darken subsequent dyebath
- 2-4 tablespoons for 1kg of wool

 COPPER SULPHATE - (Blue Vitriol)

7 - 14 gram copper sulphate
450-gram wool
20 liters water- Saddens colours

- Brings out greens from yellows
- Also useful in obtaining greens by over dyeing
- Though resultant colours are quite dull they are the fastest to light and washing
- Often not used on wool as it leaves wool quite hard- 4-6 tablespoons for 1kg of wool

TIN - (Stannous chloride)

7-14 gram tin
55-gram cream of tartar
450-gram wool
20 liters water

 - Popular as it produces the most dramatic shades
- Brightens colours, especially reds, oranges and yellows
- Can be used to pre-mordant fibre, though generally added to dyebath
- Needs to be used sparingly, a little goes a long way
- Can spoil felting properties of wool
- Always used with cream of tartar
- 2-4 teaspoons for 1kg of wool, 4 teaspoons of cream of tartar
- Using more than 5 teaspoons of tin will make fibre very harsh and tender
- Using more will than 8 teaspoons will carbonise wool

TANNIC ACID

30-gram tannic acid (Myrobalan)
450-gram wool
This is a very strong astringent and may be used as an additive with other mordents.

- Good mordant if tans or browns are required
- Wool pre-mordanted with tannic acid tends to darken with age
- Cutch and Myrobalan both have high concentrations of tannic acid therefore can be used as a substitute
- 60gms per 1kg of wool

 CREAM OF TARTAR

- Used as an additive with alum and other mordants as it softens the effects of these harsh chemicals on the fibre
- Increases acid content of dyebath
- 8 teaspoons per 1kg of wool (more will not harm fibre)

 ACETIC ACID 30%

- Brightens and darkens colours
- Helps soften hard water
- Neutralizes alkaline bath
- 2 cup per 1kg wool (more will not harm fibre)

 HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA

- Alkali, must be used sparingly or fibre quality will be impaired
- Often when a small quantity is added to final rinse water, there will be a dramatic change in colour
- Most often used as an additive when using a fermentation vat (natural indigo)
- Must be used in well vented room or outdoors (preferably outdoors)

 URINE

- Human or animal urine is suitable for use in natural dyeing
- Inexpensive
- Generally safer to use than ammonia
- Improves with ageing (weeks to months)
- Like ammonia it is a good idea to use it outside
- 5L (more if urine is fresh) per 1kg of wool

 SODIUM SULPHATE

- Is a leveling agent, not a mordant
- Will alter colour slightly, final colour will be slightly duller. This can be overcome with an after bath containing tin
- Sometimes the same dyestuff will dye different fibres slightly different shades, with the addition of sodium sulphate different shades will blend into uniformity
- 8 tablespoons for 1kg of wool

 COLOUR PROBABILITIES FOR NATURAL DYES